1 g of soy fibre) samples. The recovery for each analyte was calculated from the content found in the fortified sample in relation to the expected amount, subtracting the non-spiked sample content. Precision (repeatability)

was determined for each analyte as the coefficient of variation from the three replicates analysed in the recovery experiment. For isoflavones, which were quantified using the diode array detector (DAD), the limits of detection (LOD) and of quantification (LOQ) were calculated using the following equations: Duvelisib ic50 LOD = 3.3 (σ/S); LOQ = 10 (σ/S), where σ is the standard deviation of the response of a blank (calculated from the linear coefficient of three calibration curves) and S is the mean angular coefficient of three calibration curves. For soyasaponins, which were quantified using the mass spectrometer (MS), LOD and LOQ were

calculated as the concentrations equivalent to three and ten times the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N), respectively, of the lowest concentration calibration curve point. S/N ratios were calculated by LCMSolutions software, using a built-in tool. The employment of S/N ratio is preferable in comparison to calibration check details curves parameters for LOD and LOQ calculations, as the latter approach tends to underestimate these values. Samples were extracted in triplicate according to a modification of the methods of Genovese and Lajolo, 2002 and Fang et al., 2004 and Rostagno, Palma, and Barroso (2005). Briefly, 0.1 g of sample and 4 ml of aqueous methanol 80% was extracted in an Ultra-Turrax extractor (IKA®, T18 Basic) at 22,000 rpm for one min. The obtained extract was centrifuged for 10 min at 3000 rpm, the supernatant collected and the residue re-extracted twice following the same procedure. Next, supernatants were combined and placed

in an ultrasound bath for 15 min. The organic solvent was removed with the aid of a rota-evaporator at 170 rpm (Büchi©, 131 EL, Switzerland). Oxalosuccinic acid The concentrated extract was introduced into a Strata-X solid phase extraction (SPE) cartridge (3 ml, 200 mg, Phenomenex®, CA, USA), previously conditioned with 10 ml of methanol and 10 ml of water. The impurities contained in the extract were eluted with 10 ml of water and the cartridge was vacuum-dried for 15 min. The analytes were eluted with5 ml of methanol and the final extract was properly diluted with water prior to HPLC-DAD–MS analysis. The LC system (Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan) comprised a LC-10ADvp quaternary pump, a CTO-10ASvp column oven, an 8125 manual injector (Rheodyne) with a 20 μL loop and a SPD-M10Avp DAD. This LC system was coupled to a LC–MS 2010 MS (Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan) equipped with an electrospray ion source. Chromatographic separations were achieved using a Kromasil® C18 column (150 × 2.1 mm, 5 μm, 100 Å, AkzoNobel, Bohus, Sweden) maintained at a constant temperature of 40 °C. The LC two-phase mobile system consisted of a gradient of water (eluent A) and acetonitrile (eluent B), both added with 0.

Most phenolic compounds found in wine can act as antioxidants (Yildirim, Akçay, Güvenç, Altindisli, & Sözmen, 2005). Likewise, residues of wine production are also characterised by high contents of phenolic compounds

due to an incomplete CB-839 chemical structure extraction during wine production. According to Shrikhande (2000), grape extracts consist of anthocyanins from the skin and procyanidins from the seeds. By-products obtained after wine production, such as the seeds or pomace, constitute a cheap source for extraction of antioxidant flavonoids, which can be used as food supplements or in the production of phytochemicals (González-Paramás, Esteban-Ruano, Santos-Buelga, Pascual-Teresa, & Rivas-Gonzalo, 2004). Furthermore, anthocyanins are considered as potential substitutes for synthetic colourants owing to their bright, attractive colour and water solubility, which make them attractive for incorporation into a variety of food systems (Bordignon-Luiz, Gauche, Gris, & Falcão, 2007). Synthetic selleck products phenolic antioxidants such as BHT (buthylated hydroxytoluene), BHA (buthylated hydroxyanisole) and TBHQ (tert-butylhydroxyquinone) effectively inhibit lipid oxidation. However, concern from consumers regarding such additives has motivated investigations into the benefits of natural antioxidants as substitutes for synthetic ones (Formanek et al.,

2001). Most of the pomace formed from the Brazilian wine production, near 59.4 million kg of pomace considering 18 kg pomace/100 L wine, is treated as a residue with low profit uses such as in animal feed and manure. Therefore, the use of this residue as a valuable winery by-product may represent significant

economic gains and prevent or decrease environmental problems caused by grape pomace accumulation (Campos, Leimann, Pedrosa, & Ferreira, 2008). In this context, the aim of this study was to assess the phenolic compounds content and the in vitro antioxidant activity of red grape pomaces resulting from the Brazilian wine production, with a view to exploiting its Immune system potential as a source of natural antioxidants. 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonate) (ABTS), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), β-carotene, linoleic acid, BHT (2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol), Trolox (6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2-carboxylic acid), catechin, epicatechin, gallic acid, quercetin, kaempferol, t-resveratrol and rutin were purchased from Sigma–Aldrich Chemie (Steinheim, Germany). Malvidin-3-glucoside was purchased from Polyphenols Laboratories AS (Sandnes, Norway). Folin–Ciocalteau reagent, 2,4,6-Tris(2-pyridyl)-1,3,5-triazine (TPTZ) and Tween 40 were purchased from Fluka Chemie AG (Buchs, Switzerland). The solvents employed for extraction and HPLC procedures were analytical/HPLC grade and purchased from Merck (São Paulo, Brazil). Red grape pomaces from the following varieties were analysed: Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot (Vitis vinifera L.), Bordeaux and Isabel (Vitis labrusca L.

A second factor to be considered

when deciding between a dual-chamber or single-chamber device is the detrimental effect of unnecessary right ventricular pacing on morbidity and mortality, which was observed in the early days of dual-chamber ICD therapy 24 and 36. In the meantime, this risk has been substantially reduced by the introduction of algorithms to minimize ventricular pacing 37, 38 and 39. The devices implanted within the OPTION trial were all equipped with SafeR, a well-established algorithm to minimize ventricular pacing, with proved effectiveness in randomized clinical trials 30 and 38. In the OPTION trial, no statistically significant differences in the percent of ventricular pacing was observed between the dual-chamber setting and single-chamber Quizartinib in vivo setting groups, with a median

ventricular pacing percent of 0%. Furthermore, there were equivalent rates of death or cardiovascular events in both groups. Thus, dual-chamber ICD therapy combined with the SafeR algorithm provides a net benefit by reducing inappropriate shocks check details without increasing cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Finally, it is generally believed that the implantation of dual-chamber ICDs requires greater expertise. There are reports of an increased incidence of implantation- and device-related complications with dual-chamber ICDs in current clinical care (23), recently confirmed by Peterson et al. (40). In contrast to that and in agreement with the DATAS (Dual Chamber and Atrial Tachyarrhythmias Adverse Events Study) (41), the OPTION trial showed no elevated incidence of device-related

or implantation-related adverse events in the dual-chamber selleck chemical group, even disregarding the atrial lead–related complications in the single-chamber group. All patients in the OPTION study were provided with dual-chamber devices. This could slightly overestimate the rates of inappropriate shocks due to AF induced by local irritation from the lead. This study design was chosen because the information from the atrial lead was crucial to determine accurately the appropriateness of the therapy, which represented a central component of our primary endpoint. Moreover, it should be noted that the slow ventricular tachycardia zone setting was different between the groups: this zone was used as a monitor zone for the single-chamber group, while ATP with no shock was recommended for the dual-chamber group. Such a difference must be considered in addition to the treatment difference that is under randomized investigation. Given the small number of inappropriate shocks in the dual-chamber setting group, further subgroup analysis with respect to patients who may benefit most from dual-chamber implantation was not possible. The crossover rate was higher than in some other studies. However, it is not assumed that this has contributed to the positive finding of the trial, because the vast majority of patients switched to the dual-chamber setting group.

, 2012). Despite the fact that local H:DBH allometry can be obtained from a small sample (45–90 individuals) of the stand, regional H-models can provide a fair alternative (Fig. 2A). In the field, measuring tree heights do not represent a heavy extra-cost and required on average 3–5 min at our sites. Most models overestimate the biomass of large trees, what could be considerably reduced in measuring systematically their height. In addition to a representative sample of the DBH distribution, focusing on large trees might help improving biomass estimate Veliparib and represent a good compromise between time constraints and accuracy. This research is part of

the project entitled Impacts of Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation and Enhancing Carbon Stocks (I-REDD+). I-REDD+ is

funded by the European Community’s Seventh Framework Research Programme. Additional support was provided to CIFOR by the governments of Australia (Grant Agreement # 46167) and Norway (Grant Agreement #QZA-10/0468). This work was carried out as part of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research programs on Forests, Trees and Agroforestry (CRP6). Part of the data were collected by WWF Indonesia under the REDD for people and nature (RPAN) project funded by NORAD. The authors thank Ghislain Vieilledent and an anonymous reviewer for their valuable contribution that helped improving our manuscript. “
“Less intensive approaches Selleckchem BMS 387032 to forest management, such as partial cutting, are often proposed as a viable form of coarse-filter conservation of biological diversity and thus are key elements commonly included in larger proposed strategies for ecosystem management.

A non-trivial finding common Pyruvate dehydrogenase lipoamide kinase isozyme 1 in evaluations of partial cutting is that more retention maintains overall species assemblages better than less retention (Craig and Macdonald, 2009, Work et al., 2010 and Gustafsson et al., 2011). While the ‘more is better’ aspects of partial cutting seem intuitive (Lindenmayer et al., 2012), inclusion of partial cutting in larger management plans necessitates empirical estimates as to how much retention should be left following harvest and how best to implement partial cutting over larger landscapes. In boreal forests, partial cut harvesting has been advocated primarily as a means of creating or maintaining stand structures consistent with specific stages of forest succession (Bergeron and Harvey, 1997 and Harvey et al., 2002). In this approach, partial cutting is used to create structures consistent with uneven-aged or older forests which contain multiple cohorts of trees and/or different sizes of trees to maintain diverse stand structure and ensuring a continued albeit partial cover across a site (Messier et al., 2009). Under such a multicohort approach, retention left following partial cutting is meant to serve a primarily ecological role either as habitat for resident biodiversity or as a source of downed wood over several decades or more.

, 2012). Forest managers sometimes question, however,

whether interventions specifically formulated to respond to climate change are economically justified, as tropical foresters are likely to consider commercial agriculture IWR-1 research buy and unplanned logging more important production threats (Guariguata et al., 2012). Interviews of foresters in Europe indicate that they are sometimes similarly ambivalent in implementing specific management responses to climate change, partly reflecting uncertainties in climate impacts and appropriate responses (Milad et al., 2013). As part of the toolkit that foresters can use to adapt forests to climate change, the distribution of FGR and their silviculture can be modified in space and time (Sagnard et al., 2011 and Lefèvre et al., 2013). To date, few countries

have however taken practical steps to reduce the risk of FGR loss due to climate change. Relevant steps are usually only indirectly incorporated into action plans for forest management under climate change. In France, for example, FGR are not explicitly mentioned in the national adaptation strategy (ONERC, 2007). They are, however, part of the action plan for forests, one of the sectors included in the national strategy for biodiversity, where recommendations for their conservation and sustainable use are explicitly mentioned (MAP, 2006). Assisted migration involves human movement of tree seed and seedlings from current locations to sites modelled to experience analogous environmental conditions in the future (Guariguata selleck chemicals et al., 2008 and McLachlan selleck compound et al., 2007). Such movements may be latitudinal, longitudinal or altitudinal, and are designed to reduce extinction risks for those species not able to naturally migrate quickly enough, and to maintain forest productivity (Heller and Zavaleta, 2009, Marris, 2009 and Millar et al., 2007). Assisted migration may be undertaken over long distances, or just beyond the current range limit

of particular genotypes and populations, or within the existing range (Winder et al., 2011). A gradual form of assisted migration could consist of reforestation of harvested sites with seed from adjacent locations likely to be better adapted to the planting site under future climate (e.g., in the Northern hemisphere, using seed from sources to the south; in mountainous regions using seed from lower elevations). Aubin et al. (2011) and Winder et al. (2011) reviewed the pros and cons of the assisted migration approach. One problem is that the selection between different global climate models (GCMs) and the methods for downscaling to detailed geographic levels are still areas of active research and thereby introduce uncertainty in modelling, especially for marginal environments (Fowler et al., 2007).

Ricky demonstrated increasing depression and isolation from family and friends as attendance problems persisted, leading to significant academic problems. Significant family conflict resulted from alternating attempts by the family to exert “tough love” and accommodation (Ricky’s SR was one reason his mother did not seek employment). Ricky and his mother first appeared highly motivated for treatment. The “devil’s advocate” strategy was used to elicit a strong

commitment to treatment by posing questions like, “This program is asking a lot from you and it’s going to be hard to follow through with all of it. Why would it make sense to commit to all of this?” Ricky answered stating, “Because I have nothing to lose. I can do anything for 16 weeks and if I feel the same, I haven’t lost anything.” Ricky completed daily diary cards and parents completed youth-parent interaction trackers.

Ricky completed diary PARP inhibitor cards consistently but had difficulty remembering to bring them sessions. One consistent pattern reflected the relation between refusal behaviors and high intensity Crenolanib order emotions (usually distress or sadness). Positive emotions were associated with socializing after school or on weekends. Contingency management was introduced, and a re-entry plan was drafted that included the hierarchical goals of: getting out of bed by 6:45 a.m., not returning to bed once out of bed, limiting bathroom time to 30 minutes, driving to school, staying

in school for one class period, and concluding with staying in school for the whole day. These steps were brainstormed and developed early in treatment and flexibly applied Flavopiridol (Alvocidib) as new behavioral patterns emerged. For instance, multiple chain analyses (see Rizvi & Ritschel, 2014) revealed that Ricky stayed in school once he was there, but getting out of bed and into the car was most challenging. Graded steps focused on approaching school (e.g., going to school but staying in the counselor’s office; going to school for just one class) with many morning routine sub-steps (e.g., engaging in something active when he gets out of bed; taking a short bath to self soothe stomach pains). A reward plan was developed for Ricky, so that each target behavior was reinforced with desirables (time spent on the computer and other electronics, time with friends, and driving the family car). Once this plan was in place (session 4), the majority of Ricky’s individual sessions focused on identifying behavioral patterns that maintained SR behavior and ways to maintain treatment engagement and practice effective behaviors. Chain analyses identified Ricky’s personal vulnerabilities included failure to take medication on time/as prescribed which affected his routine, irregular sleep patterns, and eating foods that upset his stomach. Ricky’s intestinal disorder meant that he would experience extreme constipation and discomfort.

The authors would like to express their gratitude

to Dr. Carmen Penido at the Laboratory of Applied Pharmacology (Farmanguinhos, FIOCRUZ) for her critical reading of this manuscript, Mr. Andre Benedito da Silva for animal care, Mrs. Ana Lucia Neves da Silva for her help with the microscopy, and Mrs. Moira Elizabeth Schottler and Mrs. Claudia Buchweitz for their assistance in editing the manuscript. This work was supported by grants from the Centres of Excellence Program (PRONEX/FAPERJ), the Brazilian Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), Carlos Chagas Filho, the Rio de Janeiro State Alisertib cell line Research Supporting Foundation (FAPERJ), the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES), the São Paulo State Research Supporting Foundation (FAPESP), and Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ). “
“The corresponding author regrets the incorrect spelling of one of the authors’, S. Hari Subramanian. The correct spelling is Hari H. Subramanian. And also, both the authors Z.G. Huang and H.H. Subramanian contributed equally to this work. The authors would like to apologise for any inconvenience caused. “
“Hendra virus and Nipah virus are

recently recognized bat-borne paramyxoviruses, each of which have repeatedly emerged causing significant morbidity and mortality in both animal and human populations since the mid to late 1990’s. Hendra virus was isolated in Australia from fatal cases of severe respiratory disease in horses and one person in the Brisbane suburb of Hendra in September, 1994, and was shown to be distantly

related this website to measles virus and other morbilliviruses (Murray et al., 1995). The same virus Beta adrenergic receptor kinase had also caused fatal infections in horses a month prior in Mackay, Australia, but this emergence was only recognized when one individual who was unknowingly exposed to the infected horses at that time developed a recrudescence of fatal meningoencephalitis 13 months later (O’Sullivan et al., 1997 and Wong et al., 2009). Hendra virus’ close relative, Nipah virus, emerged in peninsular Malaysia in 1998–99, in a large outbreak of respiratory disease in pigs along with numerous cases of encephalitis among pig farmers, eventually resulting in more than 100 human fatalities. Genetic and serological studies revealed the relatedness of this new virus to Hendra virus (Chua et al., 2000). Hendra virus and Nipah virus now represent the prototype species of the new genus Henipavirus within the paramyxovirus family ( Wang et al., 2013). Since their discovery, both Hendra virus and Nipah virus have continued to repeatedly cause spillover events into animals and/or people. Hendra virus infection among horses in Australia has occurred annually since 2006 and in total there have now been 7 human cases of which 4 have been fatal (Anonymous, 2009b and Playford et al., 2010). In all 7 human cases, Hendra virus was transmitted from infected horses to humans.

Such increased rib-cage contribution can reduce diaphragmatic shortening (Druz and Sharp, 1981), and contribute to improved diaphragmatic coupling (Druz and Sharp, 1981). The increase in ΔPga/ΔPes ratio during loading together with the postexpiratory expiratory muscle recruitment – supported by our results (Fig. 6) and by previous investigations (Loring and Mead, 1982 and Strohl et al., 1981) – suggests that loading triggered a coordinated action of extra-diaphragmatic muscles, which, in turn, improved the mechanical advantage of the diaphragm. In addition, co-activation of (inspiratory) rib-cage muscles facilitates the action of the diaphragm by reducing

the muscle’s velocity of shortening during contraction – a functional synergism (De Troyer, 2005). Diaphragmatic coupling while subjects sustained Etoposide cost the small, constant threshold load recorded 5 and 15 min after loading was similar to the coupling

recorded before loading. During these three time periods, the values of EELV, end-expiratory Pga and ΔPga/ΔPes remained constant (data not shown). These results further support the possibility that improvements in the mechanical advantage of the diaphragm were indeed responsible for the improvement in coupling during incremental loading. The proximate cause of task failure was the intolerable discomfort required to breathe. Upstream processes responsible for this intolerable discomfort could include peripheral mechanisms, central mechanisms or Selleckchem MI-773 both. Peripheral processes include impaired neuromuscular Montelukast Sodium transmission and contractile fatigue (Hill, 2000), while central processes include hypercapnia-induced dyspnea (Morelot-Panzini et al., 2007), dyspnea triggered by stimulation of intrathoracic

C-fibers and intramuscular C-fibers (Morelot-Panzini et al., 2007), and dyspnea triggered by decreased output form pulmonary stretch receptors (Killian, 2006). Two considerations suggest that peripheral mechanisms were not primarily responsible for the unbearable discomfort at task failure. Diaphragmatic CMAPs (elicited by stimulation of the phrenic nerves) at task failure and 20 and 40 min later had similar amplitudes to the amplitudes recorded before loading. That is, neuromuscular transmission at task failure and after task failure was not affected by the preceding loading. Moreover, the presence of contractile fatigue after loading was an inconsistent finding (Fig. 7). On this basis, we reason that upstream processes responsible for the intolerable breathing discomfort at task failure were central in origin. One mechanism was alveolar hypoventilation consequent to load-induced inhibition of central activation (Gandevia, 2001). The presence of inadequate central activation in our subjects is inconsistent with the results of Eastwood and collaborators (Eastwood et al., 1994) who reported near maximal recruitment of the diaphragm at maximum load.

, 2008, Braccialli et al., 2008 and de Paula and Branco, 2005). In urethane-anesthetized,

vagotomized and artificially ventilated rats, in control conditions, hypoxia or hypercapnia produced a dual response on arterial pressure. The hypoxia produced an initial increase in MAP in the first 5–10 s that was followed by a decrease in MAP that reach the minimum value at the end of the period of hypoxia. The hypercapnia reduced arterial pressure in the first minute followed by an increase at the end of the 5-min hypercapnia. The hypoxia or hypercapnia rapidly increased PND and gradually increased sSND which reaches the maximum at the end of the test. In conscious rats, in control conditions, hypoxia or hypercapnia increased ventilation and hypoxia increased MAP, whereas hypercapnia produced no change in MAP. The blockade of neuronal activity with muscimol Metformin injection into the commNTS almost abolished the pressor, sympathetic and phrenic responses to hypoxia in anesthetized rats and partially reduced the pressor and respiratory responses to hypoxia in conscious rats, whereas the same treatment in the commNTS produced no changes in the cardiorespiratory responses to hypercapnia in conscious or anesthetized rats. Therefore, in anesthetized or conscious rats, it seems that chemoreflex-mediated Venetoclax mw cardiovascular and respiratory

responses to hypoxia are strongly dependent on caudal commNTS mechanisms. However, in conscious rats, neuronal blockade in the commNTS with muscimol http://www.selleck.co.jp/products/obeticholic-acid.html only partially reduced cardiorespiratory responses to hypoxia. The effects of muscimol injected into the commNTS in conscious rats are similar to those previously demonstrated in the working heart-brainstem preparation after combining glutamatergic and purinergic receptor blockade in the commNTS (Braga et al., 2007), which suggest that in this case cardiorespiratory responses to hypoxia are also mediated by signals

that arise from other central sites not related to commNTS. A previous study showed that electrolytic lesions of the commNTS abolished the pressor and bradycardic responses to peripheral chemoreceptor activation with i.v. injection of KCN (Colombari et al., 1996). It is interesting to note that the results of the present study showed that muscimol into the commNTS only reduced the pressor responses to hypoxia in conscious rats, whereas in the previous study electrolytic lesions of the commNTS abolished the pressor response to i.v. KCN. These differences also suggest that, in conscious rats, besides the activation of peripheral chemoreceptors, additional mechanisms are activated by hypoxia, probably centrally, that do not depend on commNTS (Colombari et al., 1996).

Although the researchers favor a linguistic identification with

Arawak, people of several other important language families build the round villages, too, and the current inhabitants in fact are Carib-speakers who explicitly trace descent from the ancient people who occupied their sites. The date of the prehistoric site system is late prehistoric, between about 1450 and 1000 years cal AD. Both the ancient and modern people practiced horticulture and agroforestry, and their sites have patches of anthropic black soil and extant anthropic forests, which constitute lasting human impacts on the habitat (see Sections ‘Anthropic black soils’ and ‘Anthropic forests’). These features, though less extensive than those on the major floodplains of the Amazon, nonetheless show that such impacts of occupation took place away from the main floodplains, contrary to environmental determinist theory. Fludarabine Also recognized recently, the so-called geoglyphs are quite different from the other monuments. Geoglyphs so far have been found primarily in a 250 km long area of Brazil, Bolivia, and Colombia in terra firme habitat, at both small and large rivers ( Parssinen et al., 2003, Schaan et al., 2007 and Schaan et al., 2012). Like the Ecuadorian Formative mounds, geoglyphs are artificial constructions on dry, non-flooded land, not on wetlands. Hundreds have

been found, revealed by recent deforestation for ranching. If currently forested areas nearby also have such structures, researchers suggest that a total of ten times that number. In principle, the geoglyphs could be detected within intact forest, as topographic anomalies in geophysical or remote learn more sensing surveys, but prospection is still in a preliminary stage. Unlike habitation mounds, these reflect a primarily ritual, socio-technic, and esthetic character. The name refers to their geometric iconography. The large earth constructions are in the shape of quadrangles or circles or combinations of those, surrounded by ditches and walls (Fig. 11). The circles are between 100 and 300 m across, the ditches are at least 10 m wide and 1–3 m deep,

with walls from 50 cm to a meter high. Some geoglyphs have ramps, raised roads, or paths. Because no topographic instrument maps of them have been published, their three-dimensional shapes are unclear. In view of their size from one Oxalosuccinic acid to several hectares, their rare, non-utilitarian pottery, and their ramps, geoglyphs are interpreted as places for religious or political meetings, Some have modest amounts of domestic materials as well, though they do not seem primarily refuse mounds or defensive works. Based on limited dating, most appear to be about 1200–1000 years old, but new dates take some back to the beginning of the common era. Although it had been speculated that the land might have been deforested at the time, the stable carbon isotope values for radiocarbon dated charcoal (ca. −28 per mil delta 13C) fits a closed canopy forest.