Others are two-step absorption, being a ground-state absorption followed by an excited-state absorption, and second-harmonic generation. The latter mechanism requires extremely high intensities, of about 1010 times the sun’s intensity on a sunny day, to take place [26] and can therefore

be ruled out as a viable mechanism for solar cell enhancement. Upconverters usually combine an active ion, of which the energy LY2874455 level scheme is employed for absorption, and a host material, in which the active ion is embedded. The most efficient upconversion has been reported for the lanthanide ion couples (Yb, Er) and (Yb, Tm) [27]. The first demonstration of such an upconversion layer was reported by Gibart et al. [28] who used a GaAs cell on top of a vitroceramic containing Yb3+ and Er3+: it showed 2.5% efficiency under very high excitation densities. Upconverter materials Lanthanides have been employed in upconverters attached to the back of bifacial silicon solar cells. Trivalent erbium is ideally suited for upconversion of near-infrared (NIR) light due to its ladder of nearly equally spaced energy levels that are multiples

of the 4I15/2 to 4I13/2 transition (1,540 nm; see also Figure 2). Shalav et al. [29] have demonstrated a 2.5% increase of external quantum efficiency selleck inhibitor due to upconversion using NaYF4:20% Er3+. By depicting luminescent emission intensity as a function of incident monochromatic (1,523 nm) excitation power in a double-log plot, they showed that at low light intensities, a two-step upconversion process (4I15/2 → 4I13/2 → 4I11/2) dominates, while at higher intensities, a three-step upconversion process (4I15/2 → 4I13/2 → 4I11/2 → 4S3/2level)

Non-specific serine/threonine protein kinase is involved. Figure 2 Upconversion in the (Yb 3+ , Er 3+ ) couple. The PD0332991 in vitro dashed lines represent energy transfer, the full lines represent the radiative decay, and the curly lines indicate multi-phonon relaxation processes. The main route is a two-step energy transfer after excitation around 980 nm in the Yb3+ ion that leads to excitation to the 4F7/2 state of the Er3+ ion. After relaxation from this state, emission is observed from the 2H11/2 level, the 4S3/2 level (green), and the 4F9/2 level (red). Strümpel et al. have identified the materials of possible use in up- (and down-) conversion for solar cells [26]. In addition to the NaYF4:(Er,Yb) phosphor, they suggest the use of BaCl2:(Er3+,Dy3+) [30], as chlorides were thought to be a better compromise between having a low phonon energy and a high-excitation spectrum, compared to the NaYF4[31, 32]. These lower phonon energies lead to lower non-radiative losses. In addition, the emission spectrum of dysprosium is similar to that of erbium, but the content of Dy3+ should be <0.1% to avoid quenching [25, 26]. NaYF4 co-doped with (Er3+, Yb3+) is, to date, the most efficient upconverter [27, 33], with approximately 50% of all absorbed NIR photons upconverted and emitted in the visible wavelength range.