, 2012). Forest managers sometimes question, however,

whether interventions specifically formulated to respond to climate change are economically justified, as tropical foresters are likely to consider commercial agriculture IWR-1 research buy and unplanned logging more important production threats (Guariguata et al., 2012). Interviews of foresters in Europe indicate that they are sometimes similarly ambivalent in implementing specific management responses to climate change, partly reflecting uncertainties in climate impacts and appropriate responses (Milad et al., 2013). As part of the toolkit that foresters can use to adapt forests to climate change, the distribution of FGR and their silviculture can be modified in space and time (Sagnard et al., 2011 and Lefèvre et al., 2013). To date, few countries

have however taken practical steps to reduce the risk of FGR loss due to climate change. Relevant steps are usually only indirectly incorporated into action plans for forest management under climate change. In France, for example, FGR are not explicitly mentioned in the national adaptation strategy (ONERC, 2007). They are, however, part of the action plan for forests, one of the sectors included in the national strategy for biodiversity, where recommendations for their conservation and sustainable use are explicitly mentioned (MAP, 2006). Assisted migration involves human movement of tree seed and seedlings from current locations to sites modelled to experience analogous environmental conditions in the future (Guariguata selleck chemicals et al., 2008 and McLachlan selleck compound et al., 2007). Such movements may be latitudinal, longitudinal or altitudinal, and are designed to reduce extinction risks for those species not able to naturally migrate quickly enough, and to maintain forest productivity (Heller and Zavaleta, 2009, Marris, 2009 and Millar et al., 2007). Assisted migration may be undertaken over long distances, or just beyond the current range limit

of particular genotypes and populations, or within the existing range (Winder et al., 2011). A gradual form of assisted migration could consist of reforestation of harvested sites with seed from adjacent locations likely to be better adapted to the planting site under future climate (e.g., in the Northern hemisphere, using seed from sources to the south; in mountainous regions using seed from lower elevations). Aubin et al. (2011) and Winder et al. (2011) reviewed the pros and cons of the assisted migration approach. One problem is that the selection between different global climate models (GCMs) and the methods for downscaling to detailed geographic levels are still areas of active research and thereby introduce uncertainty in modelling, especially for marginal environments (Fowler et al., 2007).