Encephalitis occurs occasionally in adults, but more frequently in children [2]. Similar disease manifestations in laboratory workers accidentally exposed to VEEV confirm the highly infectious nature of the virus via the aerosol route [3]. In addition to natural or accidental exposure to the virus, the U.S. Department of Defense identified VEEV as a potential biological warfare

Imatinib molecular weight agent since VEEV can be produced in unsophisticated culture systems, can be stored for extended periods of time and is highly infectious, requiring relatively few organisms to infect humans [4]. To address the aerosol threat of VEEV on public health, two vaccines were developed by the U.S. government during the 1960s and 1970s: TC-83, a cell-culture attenuated vaccine developed from the Trinidad donkey (VEEV TrD) strain of subtype IAB VEEV [5] and a formalin-inactivated vaccine derived from TC-83, designated C84 [6]. For several decades the TC-83 and C84 vaccines have been administered by the U.S. Army Special Immunizations Program to laboratory

workers and animal health field selleck inhibitor workers at risk for exposure to VEEV. While TC-83 induces long-lasting immunity against closely related VEEV subtypes [7], major limitations of the vaccine exist including: only an approximately 80% response rate as assessed by plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) [8]; a 25% incidence of adverse reactions [9]; and reversion to virulence after mouse brain passages [5]. In addition, as a live virus vaccine, TC-83 cannot be used as a booster for subjects with waning antibody titers [10]. C-84 is currently used to boost antibody titers following vaccination with TC-83 and to immunize TC-83 non-responders. C-84 also has limitations in that protection is of short duration and thus requires multiple boosters. The limitations

of the TC-83 and C84 vaccines led to the development of an investigational live-attenuated VEEV vaccine, V3526, developed from a full-length cDNA clone of VEEV TrD using site-directed mutagenesis. V3526 was attenuated by deleting a furin cleavage site from Linifanib (ABT-869) the PE2 glycoprotein and incorporating a single amino acid mutation in the E1 glycoprotein [11]. The V3526 vaccine is effective in protecting rodents, horses and nonhuman primates (NHP) against subcutaneous or aerosol challenge with fully virulent VEEV TrD (Subtype IAB), as well as other VEEV subtypes (IC, IE and IIIA) [12], [13], [14] and [15]. Based on the success of V3526 in nonclinical studies, a Phase 1 clinical trial was conducted to evaluate the safety and immunogenicity of V3526 in human subjects. The clinical findings from the Phase 1 trial showed robust immune responses in virtually all vaccine recipients, even those receiving very low dosages (∼20 plaque forming units) [16].