All behavioral tests were conducted > 5 weeks postsurgery. The tests are described in the order in which they were performed. For all test sessions, the start of a session was indicated to the rat by the illumination of a white house light and the onset of low-volume white noise (65 dB) to mask extraneous sounds. Peak light output during photostimulation was estimated to be ∼1.5–2 mW at the tip of the implanted fiber for each session, and ∼0.45–0.6 mW/mm2 at the targeted tissue 500 μm from the fiber tip. This peak light power was based on measuring the average light power for the pulsed Bcl-2 inhibitor clinical trial light parameters used during experiments (20 Hz, 5 ms duration), and then correcting for the duty

cycle to arrive at the peak power (in this case by dividing by 0.1). The power density estimate was based on the light transmission

calculator at www.optogenetics.org/calc. During the first training session, both active and inactive nosepoke ports were baited with a crushed cereal treat to facilitate initial investigation. Rats were given four daily sessions of two hours each in which they could respond freely at either nosepoke port. For all rats (Th::Cre+ and Th::Cre−), a response at the active port resulted in the delivery of a 1 s train of light pulses (20 Hz, 20 pulses, 5 ms duration). Concurrently, the LED lights in the recess of the active port were illuminated, providing a visible cue whenever stimulation was delivered. Responses at the active port made during the 1 s period when the PF 2341066 light train was being delivered were recorded but had no consequence. Responses at the inactive port were always without consequence. The duration-response Fossariinae test measured the rats’ response to stimulation trains that varied systematically in length. As before, all stimulation trains consisted of pulses of 20 Hz frequency and 5 ms duration. The test was organized into nine trials, and in each trial nosepokes at the active port were rewarded with stimulation trains

of a specific length (100, 80, 60, 40, 20, 10, 5, 3, or 1 pulse/train). The first trial consisted of the longest stimulation length (100 pulses); the next trial consisted of the next longest stimulation length (80 pulses), and so on in descending order. A series of all nine trials was considered to be a “sweep.” A session consisted of four consecutive sweeps. The data presented is an average of all eight sweeps from two consecutive days of testing. The start of a trial was signaled by the illumination of the house light and the onset of low-level white noise as described above. Three “priming” trains of stimulation were then delivered noncontingently to inform the rat of the stimulation parameters that would be available on the upcoming trial. The separation between these trains was equal to the length of stimulation or 1 s, whichever longer.