The authors point out that this effect could be due to the demonstrated Palbociclib pH sensitivity of internalization of clathrin-coated pits and of dynamin-adaptin binding. Moreover, cytosolic acidification has previously been shown to inhibit endocytosis (Coleman et al., 2008). Thus, the bimodal pH response (acidification followed by alkalinization) observed by Zhang et al. may result

in a certain amount of endocytosis inhibition during the first part of prolonged nerve stimulation, followed by endocytosis activation during the rest of the stimulation and for tens of seconds during the poststimulation period. Zhang et al. also note that presynaptic P/Q-type calcium channels might be inhibited by acidification,

and therefore the observed alkalization may prevent this effect and help maintain transmitter output during repetitive stimulation. The changes in cytoplasmic pH were not spatially uniform, which might reflect differences in the Antidiabetic Compound Library density of vATPases in the surface membrane during and after stimulation (differences in the spatial distribution of proton buffers is another possibility). The observed proton “cold spots” are reminiscent of and consistent with the exocytic “hot spots” observed in mice transgenic with synaptopHluorin (Tabares et al., 2007 and Gaffield et al., 2009). Such colocalization would be adaptive, in that endocytic rate would be matched favorably to the amount of exocytosis.

Synaptic vesicles in the brain possess one or two copies of the vATPase (Takamori et al., 2006). If the same holds for cholinergic vesicles in motor nerve terminals, then during repetitive stimulation like that used by Zhang et al. (50 Hz for 20 s), which releases about 30,000 quanta, about 45,000 vATPase molecules will be externalized, which however with an average presynaptic membrane surface area of 300 μm2 would produce a density of 150 proton pumps per μm2. (The actual density will be slightly less than this, owing to endocytosis during the 20 s stimulus train; Tabares et al., 2007.) This density is within the range reported for nerve terminals in the electric organ of Torpedo (mean of 40 V0 domains/μm2, range up to 200 per μm2; Morel et al., 2003). The vATPase is a multimeric protein complex (Figure 1A) formed by multiple different subunits expressed in all eukaryotic cells. It functions as a proton pumping rotary nanomotor. It is present in intracellular membrane compartments, including synaptic vesicles. The vATPase consists of two multisubunit parts that associate reversibly: V0 is in the membrane and can form a pore, while V1 is in the cytoplasm and is an ATPase (Nishi and Forgac, 2002). Bound and working together, they pump protons into the vesicle. The V0 domain contains a proteolipid oligomer of several c subunits and one copy each of subunits a, d, e, and c″ ( Nishi and Forgac, 2002).