Specifically, the increase of CD28null T cells within the CD4+ an

Specifically, the increase of CD28null T cells within the CD4+ and CD8+ T cell compartment is highly associated with a previous CMV infection [14, 20, 21]. However, CD8+ memory

T cells contain far more CD28null as well as CD57+ T cells when compared to CD4+ T cells. These differentiated T cells are known to have short telomeres [16, 22], which we could confirm for ESRD patients in this study. The CD57-expressing cells are found predominantly within the CD2-negative memory T cells, implying that most of the senescent cells are located within this memory fraction and are found to be higher in CMV-seropositive Regorafenib clinical trial ESRD patients. As we did not detect an increase in the number of Ki-67+ T cells in the CMV-seropositive patients, we could not establish a higher turnover of memory T cells. This might suggest that, after initial expansion of this cell population shortly after CMV infection [23], these cells will enter a more exhausted state during chronic latency of the virus. This results in a loss of capacity to proliferate accompanied by an increased resistance to apoptosis [24]. Like ESRD patients, individuals infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) have T cell deficiencies which

resemble premature T cell ageing, caused probably by continuous triggering of the immune system by the virus [25]. Although the mechanism of creating a prematurely aged T cell compartment for both diseases is different, the end result on T cells is similar VX-809 nmr (i.e. higher number of differentiated cells with a loss in CD28 expression, shorter telomeres and

a lower number of naive T cells), resulting in similar clinical outcomes such as a higher risk for infections, development of cancer and cardiovascular diseases [26]. In HIV-infected individuals, CMV causes an increase OSBPL9 in EMRA CD8+CD28null T cells expressing CD57. These highly differentiated cells are positive for the effector cytotoxins perforin and granzyme B [27, 28]. In HIV patients it was found that strong anti-CMV T cell responses result in a lower number of naive T cells for the CD4 T cell compartment [28]. These CMV effects found in HIV patients are in line with CMV effects in ESRD patients. We have postulated previously that the prematurely aged T cell system in ESRD patients contributes to clinically relevant complications, such as increased infection risk, decreased vaccination response and a highly increased risk for cardiovascular diseases [2, 5, 6, 29-31]. Given their cardiotoxic features, the proinflammatory and highly cytotoxic CD4+CD28null T cells in ESRD patients can be important for later complications [8]. A number of earlier reports have also shown the relation between CMV serostatus, the expansion of CD28null T cells and the increased risk for atherosclerosis in ESRD patients [6-9].

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