With a lower lion density, a high density of other prey and bette

With a lower lion density, a high density of other prey and better visibility, we expected lower lion predation in Kirawira. Giraffes were photographed and later identified using the coat markings unique to each animal (Foster, 1966). Individual identifications, done by eye, were double-checked using Wild ID pattern-matching software for giraffes (Bolger et al., 2012).

No individuals were observed in more than 1 study area during the sampling period. Most giraffes selleck chemicals llc were sighted multiple times. Using a suite of physical characteristics, including body shape, relative length of the neck and legs, ossicone (horn) characteristics and height, giraffes were categorized into 3 age classes: calf (0–1 year), subadult (1–5 years) or adult (>5 years). For a more fine-scale analysis, subadults were aged to ±1 year by comparing each individual with a sample of known-aged giraffes of the same sex. Height measurements were compared against age–height curves for Serengeti giraffes (Pellew, 1983a). We measured height with a Haglöf electronic clinometer (Haglof Company Group, Långsele, Sweden) (accuracy of ±0.1 m), calibrated by the distance from the observer to the giraffe, which, in turn, was measured with a Bushnell range finder (Bushnell Corporation, Overland Park,

KS, USA) (accuracy of ±1 m). beta-catenin inhibitor Height, from the ground to the top of the ossicones, was measured with the giraffe standing in an upright posture. Height measurements were only taken when a giraffe could be approached closely and remained still long enough for an accurate reading. We recorded the size and composition of giraffe herds, defined as individuals feeding, socializing and/or moving together

MCE (solitary individual equals herd size of 1). Herd members could be dispersed over 1 km, but were usually within close proximity. For each giraffe, we calculated that individual’s ‘mean herd size’ – a measure of social behavior. For example, if individual with identification code SF1 was observed in 5 herds of sizes 1, 5, 10, 5 and 2, SF1′s mean herd size would be equal to 4.6. A total of 917 individual giraffes were identified during this study. Photographs of 702 giraffes (132 calves, 187 subadults and 383 adults) were inspected for predation marks. These data were used to calculate predation-mark prevalence. Individuals (n = 215) with unsatisfactory photographs were excluded. Calves were rarely excluded and males were excluded slightly more often than females because some males were seen infrequently or only at a distance. Two classes of predation marks were recorded: unambiguous lion claw marks and ambiguous marks. We defined unambiguous claw marks as sets of parallel incisions/scars, or as long scars extending over multiple, usually adjacent, body regions. Figure 1 illustrates the appearance of lion claw marks on 2 herbivore species, zebra Equus burchelli and eland Taurotragus oryx, and Fig.

With a lower lion density, a high density of other prey and bette

With a lower lion density, a high density of other prey and better visibility, we expected lower lion predation in Kirawira. Giraffes were photographed and later identified using the coat markings unique to each animal (Foster, 1966). Individual identifications, done by eye, were double-checked using Wild ID pattern-matching software for giraffes (Bolger et al., 2012).

No individuals were observed in more than 1 study area during the sampling period. Most giraffes PARP phosphorylation were sighted multiple times. Using a suite of physical characteristics, including body shape, relative length of the neck and legs, ossicone (horn) characteristics and height, giraffes were categorized into 3 age classes: calf (0–1 year), subadult (1–5 years) or adult (>5 years). For a more fine-scale analysis, subadults were aged to ±1 year by comparing each individual with a sample of known-aged giraffes of the same sex. Height measurements were compared against age–height curves for Serengeti giraffes (Pellew, 1983a). We measured height with a Haglöf electronic clinometer (Haglof Company Group, Långsele, Sweden) (accuracy of ±0.1 m), calibrated by the distance from the observer to the giraffe, which, in turn, was measured with a Bushnell range finder (Bushnell Corporation, Overland Park,

KS, USA) (accuracy of ±1 m). see more Height, from the ground to the top of the ossicones, was measured with the giraffe standing in an upright posture. Height measurements were only taken when a giraffe could be approached closely and remained still long enough for an accurate reading. We recorded the size and composition of giraffe herds, defined as individuals feeding, socializing and/or moving together

medchemexpress (solitary individual equals herd size of 1). Herd members could be dispersed over 1 km, but were usually within close proximity. For each giraffe, we calculated that individual’s ‘mean herd size’ – a measure of social behavior. For example, if individual with identification code SF1 was observed in 5 herds of sizes 1, 5, 10, 5 and 2, SF1′s mean herd size would be equal to 4.6. A total of 917 individual giraffes were identified during this study. Photographs of 702 giraffes (132 calves, 187 subadults and 383 adults) were inspected for predation marks. These data were used to calculate predation-mark prevalence. Individuals (n = 215) with unsatisfactory photographs were excluded. Calves were rarely excluded and males were excluded slightly more often than females because some males were seen infrequently or only at a distance. Two classes of predation marks were recorded: unambiguous lion claw marks and ambiguous marks. We defined unambiguous claw marks as sets of parallel incisions/scars, or as long scars extending over multiple, usually adjacent, body regions. Figure 1 illustrates the appearance of lion claw marks on 2 herbivore species, zebra Equus burchelli and eland Taurotragus oryx, and Fig.

0227) Natural cytotoxicity, lysis in the absence of cytokine sti

0227). Natural cytotoxicity, lysis in the absence of cytokine stimulation, was similar in all groups (data not shown).

These data suggest that lower numbers of effector NKs, coupled with an impaired ability to exert cytolytic effector function in response to IL-2, predisposes to HCV acquisition in high-risk exposed individuals. In addition to their cytolytic activity, NKs are characterized functionally by their ability to quickly produce IFN-γ, and in vitro studies suggest that it may be this aspect of their functionality that is important for control of virus replication.31, 32 Therefore, we tested the ability of NKs from our cohorts to produce IFN-γ using an intracellular Selleck Deforolimus cytokine flow-based assay. As shown in Fig. 2B, the ability to produce IFN-γ is intact for NKs in EIs. These data suggest that IFN-γ production by innate CD56pos NKs does not provide protection from HCV acquisition. Activation of NKs largely depends on the NCR family of molecules and monoclonal antibodies to NCR block NK-mediated lysis of target cells.7 NCRs include NKp46 involved in natural cytotoxicity,33 as well as NKp30 and NKp44,

which are expressed on activated NKs.34 KU-60019 mouse Recent studies have highlighted the important role played by NCRs in immunosurveillance of viral infection. Impaired NK function in HIV-1–infected patients has been associated with decreased NCR expression.35 Susceptibility to NK cell lysis of herpes simplex virus–infected cells is dependent on NCR and independent of down-regulation of MHC class I molecules or induction of activating NKG2D ligands.36 上海皓元 Envelope proteins from the Dengue virus and West Nile virus (two other

Flaviviruses) bind NKp44.37 Human cytomegalovirus pp65 protein binds NKp30, thereby inhibiting NK activation and promoting virus survival.38 The role played by NCR in chronic HCV infection remains controversial, with both increases and decreases in expression being reported.16, 39 Because we had demonstrated a significant decrease in lymphokine-activated killing (LAK) activity in the patient group that subsequently became infected, we characterized the expression of activating NCRs (p30 and p44), which has been shown to play a role in determining the cytolytic activity of activated NKs.6, 7 We included tumor necrosis factor–related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL)—another NK/NT cell receptor involved in cell lysis—in our analysis because HCV core protein has been shown to sensitize hepatocytes to TRAIL-induced apoptosis.40 NCR NKp30 expression was significantly up-regulated on both total NKs and NTs in the EU cohort (Fig. 3A). Both CD56high and CD56low NK cell subsets express NKp30 at similar levels. There is a trend for increased NKp30 on both subsets (CD56high, P = 0.0666; CD56low, P = 0.0627). No significant difference in the expression of NCRp44 was demonstrated, although a trend toward reduced NCRp44 on NTs in the EI patient cohort was noted (Fig. 3B).

T1 hyperintensity without diffusion restriction on DWI and minima

T1 hyperintensity without diffusion restriction on DWI and minimal putaminal hypointensity without phase shift on SWI were compatible with either pathological mineralization or petechial microhemorrhage or protein denaturation. In the type 2 diabetic patients with HC-HB, conventional MRI together with SWI and DWI will guide to clinician to plan treatment approach. “
“This study aimed to develop a new linguistic based

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)-sentence decision task NVP-BKM120 molecular weight that reliably detects hemispheric language dominance. FMRI was performed in 13 healthy right-handed controls and 20 patients at 1.5 T prior to neurosurgery. The main components of language were assessed with different paradigms (rhyme, synonym, and sentence). In controls, activations were quantified by a volume of interest analysis. Four neuroimagers tested a visual rating score in the patients group. Interrater agreement and concordance between fMRI and Wada test were calculated. In healthy controls, the frontal language area was activated by the sentence and synonym task in 100% and in 73% by the rhyme task. The temporal language area was activated in 100%

by the sentence-, in 64% by the synonym, and in 55% by the rhyme task. In the patients group, interrater agreement was .90 for activations in the inferior frontal and .97 in the superior temporal gyrus. Correlation between the WADA test and fMRI was .86 for the sentence, and .89 for the synonym task. The sentence task provides robust activations in putative essential language areas and can be used for visual analysis of predefined Birinapant mw areas to facilitate interpretation of clinical fMRI. “
“High-level gait disorder (HLGD) is a debilitating disorder causing mobility decline in the elderly. Although its clinical characteristics are well described, its anatomical and pathophysiological underpinnings are poorly understood. This study examined the anatomical distribution

of white matter (WM) changes in patients with mild to moderate HLGD of the cautious/disequilibrium type, using advanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) methods. Thirteen patients with HLGD, 9 elderly and 13 middle-aged healthy controls were scanned 上海皓元 using diffusion tensor imaging, Q-space imaging, and conventional MRI. The regions of significant differences between the HLGD group and the elderly control group were defined, and the mean fractional anisotropy and displacement values of these areas were extracted. The HLGD patients had lower fractional anisotropy and higher displacement values in regions related to the motor system, including those along the corticospinal tract and the superior cerebellar peduncles, as well as in cognitive and affective-related areas, including the anterior limbs of the internal capsule and the genu of the corpus callosum.

T1 hyperintensity without diffusion restriction on DWI and minima

T1 hyperintensity without diffusion restriction on DWI and minimal putaminal hypointensity without phase shift on SWI were compatible with either pathological mineralization or petechial microhemorrhage or protein denaturation. In the type 2 diabetic patients with HC-HB, conventional MRI together with SWI and DWI will guide to clinician to plan treatment approach. “
“This study aimed to develop a new linguistic based

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)-sentence decision task Akt inhibitor that reliably detects hemispheric language dominance. FMRI was performed in 13 healthy right-handed controls and 20 patients at 1.5 T prior to neurosurgery. The main components of language were assessed with different paradigms (rhyme, synonym, and sentence). In controls, activations were quantified by a volume of interest analysis. Four neuroimagers tested a visual rating score in the patients group. Interrater agreement and concordance between fMRI and Wada test were calculated. In healthy controls, the frontal language area was activated by the sentence and synonym task in 100% and in 73% by the rhyme task. The temporal language area was activated in 100%

by the sentence-, in 64% by the synonym, and in 55% by the rhyme task. In the patients group, interrater agreement was .90 for activations in the inferior frontal and .97 in the superior temporal gyrus. Correlation between the WADA test and fMRI was .86 for the sentence, and .89 for the synonym task. The sentence task provides robust activations in putative essential language areas and can be used for visual analysis of predefined I-BET-762 areas to facilitate interpretation of clinical fMRI. “
“High-level gait disorder (HLGD) is a debilitating disorder causing mobility decline in the elderly. Although its clinical characteristics are well described, its anatomical and pathophysiological underpinnings are poorly understood. This study examined the anatomical distribution

of white matter (WM) changes in patients with mild to moderate HLGD of the cautious/disequilibrium type, using advanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) methods. Thirteen patients with HLGD, 9 elderly and 13 middle-aged healthy controls were scanned medchemexpress using diffusion tensor imaging, Q-space imaging, and conventional MRI. The regions of significant differences between the HLGD group and the elderly control group were defined, and the mean fractional anisotropy and displacement values of these areas were extracted. The HLGD patients had lower fractional anisotropy and higher displacement values in regions related to the motor system, including those along the corticospinal tract and the superior cerebellar peduncles, as well as in cognitive and affective-related areas, including the anterior limbs of the internal capsule and the genu of the corpus callosum.

In addition, Jansen and colleagues have examined human articular

In addition, Jansen and colleagues have examined human articular tissue explants exposed to blood in tissue culture, and have demonstrated that coculture with the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 was correlated with reduced production of IL-1β and TNF-α

from synovium, and with protection of cartilage [33]. Although it is GSI-IX unlikely that therapy to oppose inflammatory cytokines is a strategy that would be necessary for most individuals, such therapy may be appropriate in the future should tools or markers be developed to identify individuals who are particularly at risk for early joint deterioration. Haemostasis is often the first defensive response following tissue injury. It not only stops the loss of blood but also results in the production of a variety of mediators that can influence subsequent defences, including inflammation, immunity and tissue repair. When all goes well, the body can defend itself against further injury and restore tissue structure and function. However, wound healing can be delayed or defective for many reasons. Ageing, diabetes and vascular disease are well-recognized causes of impaired wound healing in the general population. Drugs, such as corticosteroids and cancer

chemotherapy can delay healing as well. While the literature is rather limited, there is also evidence that Regorafenib price conditions that impair haemostasis also impair wound healing. There are good theoretical reasons to support this theory. However, there is a limited amount of experimental data, and essentially no human data. Studies in

rabbits showed that healing after tooth extraction is delayed in anticoagulated animals [34]. However, closure of an excisional cutaneous wound is not delayed in mice lacking fibrinogen [35] or the thrombin-activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor (TAFI) [36]. The healed wounds in mice with defective fibrin clot formation or stability MCE公司 do, however, display histological abnormalities. The dermal defect is not always filled as it should be, but rather squamous epithelium tends to migrate down into the defect, leaving a cystic space or sinus tract. Thus, formation of an adequate fibrin clot provides a framework for appropriate formation of granulation tissue to fill a tissue defect. Our group has used a mouse model of haemophilia B (HB, coagulation factor IX knockout) to study healing of cutaneous punch biopsy wounds [22]. We found that healing is impaired as these mice only generate very low levels of thrombin at the site of injury. They do form a normal haemostatic platelet plug and deposit small amounts of fibrin around the periphery of the wound. However, the platelet plug is not adequately stabilized by a fibrin meshwork, which leads to delayed bleeding in the 12–24 h after wounding.

Furthermore, it is also

unclear whether liver disease, ev

Furthermore, it is also

unclear whether liver disease, even in the absence of cirrhosis, portends increased surgical mortality. These concerns warrant further investigation. In a single-center study, isolated cardiac transplantation after failure of Fontan procedures was associated with a 63% 1-year and 57% 5-year survival, which is approximately 12%-15% lower than the 1- and 5-year survival after isolated cardiac transplantation for other indications. Persons undergoing cardiac transplantation after Fontan had a lower survival (albeit not statistically significant) than persons undergoing a Glenn procedure.34 Deaths within 7 days of cardiac transplantation were caused by hemorrhage, sepsis, and multiorgan failure. Whether Fer-1 research buy these were related to undiagnosed cardiac cirrhosis is unknown.34 The Model for End-Stage Liver Disease (MELD) score is used to both quantify the severity of liver disease as well as prioritize patients for organ allocation in the United States,

MK-2206 in vivo with a higher MELD score portending a poor outcome.35 It is possible that hepatic synthetic dysfunction among patients with CHD may not be accurately captured by mathematical modeling. For example, INR and albumin do not correlate with degree of histological severity in patients with CHD, and hence traditional models (e.g., Child–Turcotte–Pugh [CTP] or MELD) may be inadequate.11 This gap in knowledge needs to be studied, because decisions regarding transplantation (either liver transplantation < or combined heart-liver transplantation [CHLT]) may hinge on these scores.

In patients with cirrhosis of other etiologies undergoing open-heart surgery, the MELD score, CTP, American Society of Anesthesiologists class, and age are predictors of outcome.36 The mathematical risk model (http://www.mayoclinic.org/meld/mayomodel9.html) may be helpful in risk stratification in patients evaluated for repair of CHD defects. It should, however, be emphasized that derivation of the model did not include any patient that underwent surgery for CHD, and hence the above models are extrapolated 上海皓元 with caution to patients with CHD. Keeping these limitations in mind, Fig. 3 provides a guide for initial triage of patients with CHD and liver disease needing surgery. It represents our approach to taking care of patients with CHD and liver disease, though this has not been subject to prospective evaluation. It simply serves as a starting point for discussion in a multidisciplinary environment in evaluating the needs of the patients. Referral to a transplant center should be initiated once there are signs of decompensated liver disease. However, the effectiveness or safety of isolated LT in patients with significant CHD is limited in adults. Among children, LT has been successfully performed in selected candidates with CHD; approximately 18% of pediatric LT candidates have some form of CHD.

Furthermore, it is also

unclear whether liver disease, ev

Furthermore, it is also

unclear whether liver disease, even in the absence of cirrhosis, portends increased surgical mortality. These concerns warrant further investigation. In a single-center study, isolated cardiac transplantation after failure of Fontan procedures was associated with a 63% 1-year and 57% 5-year survival, which is approximately 12%-15% lower than the 1- and 5-year survival after isolated cardiac transplantation for other indications. Persons undergoing cardiac transplantation after Fontan had a lower survival (albeit not statistically significant) than persons undergoing a Glenn procedure.34 Deaths within 7 days of cardiac transplantation were caused by hemorrhage, sepsis, and multiorgan failure. Whether this website these were related to undiagnosed cardiac cirrhosis is unknown.34 The Model for End-Stage Liver Disease (MELD) score is used to both quantify the severity of liver disease as well as prioritize patients for organ allocation in the United States,

BIBW2992 order with a higher MELD score portending a poor outcome.35 It is possible that hepatic synthetic dysfunction among patients with CHD may not be accurately captured by mathematical modeling. For example, INR and albumin do not correlate with degree of histological severity in patients with CHD, and hence traditional models (e.g., Child–Turcotte–Pugh [CTP] or MELD) may be inadequate.11 This gap in knowledge needs to be studied, because decisions regarding transplantation (either liver transplantation < or combined heart-liver transplantation [CHLT]) may hinge on these scores.

In patients with cirrhosis of other etiologies undergoing open-heart surgery, the MELD score, CTP, American Society of Anesthesiologists class, and age are predictors of outcome.36 The mathematical risk model (http://www.mayoclinic.org/meld/mayomodel9.html) may be helpful in risk stratification in patients evaluated for repair of CHD defects. It should, however, be emphasized that derivation of the model did not include any patient that underwent surgery for CHD, and hence the above models are extrapolated MCE with caution to patients with CHD. Keeping these limitations in mind, Fig. 3 provides a guide for initial triage of patients with CHD and liver disease needing surgery. It represents our approach to taking care of patients with CHD and liver disease, though this has not been subject to prospective evaluation. It simply serves as a starting point for discussion in a multidisciplinary environment in evaluating the needs of the patients. Referral to a transplant center should be initiated once there are signs of decompensated liver disease. However, the effectiveness or safety of isolated LT in patients with significant CHD is limited in adults. Among children, LT has been successfully performed in selected candidates with CHD; approximately 18% of pediatric LT candidates have some form of CHD.

0165), being significantly (10%) lower during Sedation/Entangled

0165), being significantly (10%) lower during Sedation/Entangled than in the Disentangled phase (Z  =  −2.7230, P = 0.0065; Fig. 8). There was no significant difference between ODBA in dive descents between Disentangled and Recovery phases (Z  =  −1.2603, P = 0.2076). During ascents, ODBA did not differ significantly between phases (χ2 = 2.8613, P = 0.2392; Fig. 8). Mean drag forces (N) of gear removed from Eg 3911 were consistently though not significantly

greater at all speeds with buoys attached (Table 4). Sinkline drag forces were intermediate between gear-only and gear-and-buoy configurations (Table 4). Mean drag forces showed no significant difference between surface and 2 m anchor points for gear-only (P = 0.4595), gear-and-buoys (P = 0.4888) or sinkline (P = 0.4965) configurations (Devore 2008). The mean theoretical drag coefficient of a nonentangled right whale (Cd,n) of Eg 3911′s dimensions, swimming at 0.75–2.9 m/s ranged from cancer metabolism inhibitor 3.7 × 10−3 to 2.9 × 10−3, respectively (mean ± SD; Cd,n = 3.2 × 10−3 ± 0.0003; Fig. 9). The

drag coefficient for each entangled gear scenario was calculated by applying Equation (6) (Cd = DT/(1/2)ρU2Awγkg). Though drag coefficients for Eg 3911 entangled in all gear configurations differed based on the value of k (Fig. 10), the most conservative estimates with k = 3 (Cd,e,go = 3.4 × 10−3 ± 0.0003, Cd,e,gb = 3.7 × 10−3 ± 0.0003, Cd,e,sl = 3.8 × 10−3 ± 0.0004) were significantly greater than in the nonentangled case (Wilcoxon signed rank, P = 0.0156, 0.0312, 0.0078, respectively). Having selleck kinase inhibitor made low (Kleiber) and high (3 ×  Kleiber) estimates medchemexpress of BMR, and using two values of k (1 and 3), we present drag and power requirements as the lower (k = 1, BMR = Kleiber) and upper (k = 3, BMR = 3 ×  Kleiber) bounds of the model results. Drag forces on Eg 3911 while not entangled ranged from 37.2 N to 1,263 N at 0.75–2.9 m/s. The associated total power requirements in the nonentangled condition (Eq. 11) ranged from 2,791 W to 16,140 W (Fig 10). Locomotory power requirements ranged from 191 W to 25,021 W. Drag forces on Eg 3911 entangled in various gear configurations are summarized

in Table 5. Across all gear configurations, mean entangled drag values ranged from 62.1 N to 2,421 N. Increases in total power input over the normal (nonentangled) condition ranged from 4.1% to 58.8% for the gear-only configuration, 4.9% to 82.5% for the sinkline configuration, and 4.8% to 120.9% for the gear-and-buoy configuration (Fig. 9). Locomotory power requirements increased on average 70.5% (SD 9.5) for the gear-only configuration, 91.0% (22.5) for the sinkline configuration, and 101.9% (31.9) for the gear-and-buoy configuration (total range 60.0%–164.6%). Alternatively, to maintain the same power output over the range of swimming speeds, an individual entangled in gear-only, sinkline, and gear-and-buoy configurations would need to decrease swimming speed by 16.2% (SD 1.5), 19.2% (3.0), or 20.5% (3.9), respectively (total range 14.5%–27.7%).

0165), being significantly (10%) lower during Sedation/Entangled

0165), being significantly (10%) lower during Sedation/Entangled than in the Disentangled phase (Z  =  −2.7230, P = 0.0065; Fig. 8). There was no significant difference between ODBA in dive descents between Disentangled and Recovery phases (Z  =  −1.2603, P = 0.2076). During ascents, ODBA did not differ significantly between phases (χ2 = 2.8613, P = 0.2392; Fig. 8). Mean drag forces (N) of gear removed from Eg 3911 were consistently though not significantly

greater at all speeds with buoys attached (Table 4). Sinkline drag forces were intermediate between gear-only and gear-and-buoy configurations (Table 4). Mean drag forces showed no significant difference between surface and 2 m anchor points for gear-only (P = 0.4595), gear-and-buoys (P = 0.4888) or sinkline (P = 0.4965) configurations (Devore 2008). The mean theoretical drag coefficient of a nonentangled right whale (Cd,n) of Eg 3911′s dimensions, swimming at 0.75–2.9 m/s ranged from http://www.selleckchem.com/products/ensartinib-x-396.html 3.7 × 10−3 to 2.9 × 10−3, respectively (mean ± SD; Cd,n = 3.2 × 10−3 ± 0.0003; Fig. 9). The

drag coefficient for each entangled gear scenario was calculated by applying Equation (6) (Cd = DT/(1/2)ρU2Awγkg). Though drag coefficients for Eg 3911 entangled in all gear configurations differed based on the value of k (Fig. 10), the most conservative estimates with k = 3 (Cd,e,go = 3.4 × 10−3 ± 0.0003, Cd,e,gb = 3.7 × 10−3 ± 0.0003, Cd,e,sl = 3.8 × 10−3 ± 0.0004) were significantly greater than in the nonentangled case (Wilcoxon signed rank, P = 0.0156, 0.0312, 0.0078, respectively). Having LY2606368 research buy made low (Kleiber) and high (3 ×  Kleiber) estimates medchemexpress of BMR, and using two values of k (1 and 3), we present drag and power requirements as the lower (k = 1, BMR = Kleiber) and upper (k = 3, BMR = 3 ×  Kleiber) bounds of the model results. Drag forces on Eg 3911 while not entangled ranged from 37.2 N to 1,263 N at 0.75–2.9 m/s. The associated total power requirements in the nonentangled condition (Eq. 11) ranged from 2,791 W to 16,140 W (Fig 10). Locomotory power requirements ranged from 191 W to 25,021 W. Drag forces on Eg 3911 entangled in various gear configurations are summarized

in Table 5. Across all gear configurations, mean entangled drag values ranged from 62.1 N to 2,421 N. Increases in total power input over the normal (nonentangled) condition ranged from 4.1% to 58.8% for the gear-only configuration, 4.9% to 82.5% for the sinkline configuration, and 4.8% to 120.9% for the gear-and-buoy configuration (Fig. 9). Locomotory power requirements increased on average 70.5% (SD 9.5) for the gear-only configuration, 91.0% (22.5) for the sinkline configuration, and 101.9% (31.9) for the gear-and-buoy configuration (total range 60.0%–164.6%). Alternatively, to maintain the same power output over the range of swimming speeds, an individual entangled in gear-only, sinkline, and gear-and-buoy configurations would need to decrease swimming speed by 16.2% (SD 1.5), 19.2% (3.0), or 20.5% (3.9), respectively (total range 14.5%–27.7%).