In the stratum radiatum of the hippocampus,

sAC immune-peroxidase labeling was observed in glial processes from wild-type (WT) mice, but not in male Sacytm1Lex/Sacytm1Lex mice (Figure 1E). The number of glial processes stained with R21 antibody was significantly reduced in sAC-C1 KO animals compared to wild-type animals (WT: 191.0 ± 18.0/411 μm2 versus sAC-C1 KO: 6.9 ± 4.6/411 μm2). The quantification is shown in Figure 1F. These data show that astrocytes, as opposed to neurons, are the predominant site for sAC expression in the hippocampus. Because of their selective permeability to K+, astrocytes are exquisitely sensitive to the changes in [K+]ext, which occur as a result of changes in neuronal depolarization generated by synaptic activity and neuronal spiking. Physiological increases in [K+]ext of only a few millimolar cause astrocyte depolarization and permit HCO3− entry through the electrogenic DAPT cell line NBC, resulting in intracellular alkalinization (Pappas and Ransom, 1994). If increases in [K+]ext activate sAC via HCO3− influx, we predict that there should be a corresponding

increase in cAMP that would be inhibited by DIDS, a blocker of NBC. Therefore, we examined the effect of elevated [K+]ext on the production of cAMP in cultured astrocytes expressing a cAMP sensor (GFPnd-EPAC(dDEP)-mCherry) (van der Krogt et al., 2008) using Försters CP-868596 supplier resonance energy transfer (FRET) confocal imaging (green fluorescent protein [GFP] donor/mCherry acceptor) (Figure S2). Elevating Ketanserin [K+]ext from 2.5 mM to 5 or 10 mM progressively increased the cAMP sensor FRET ratio, indicating a rise in intracellular cAMP (control: 0.32% ± 0.27%, n = 13; 5 mM K+: 9.60% ± 1.06%, n = 11, p < 0.001; 10 mM K+: 18.70% ± 1.12%, n = 9, p < 0.001; Figures 2A–2C). Several lines of experiments confirmed that this rise in cAMP was due to sAC activation by HCO3− entry. The increase in the cAMP sensor FRET ratio normally observed in high [K+]ext was significantly inhibited by the sAC-selective inhibitor 2-hydroxyestrone (2-OH, 20 μM) (Hess et al., 2005; Schmid et al., 2007; Steegborn et al., 2005) (3.82% ± 1.09%, n =

13, p < 0.001; Figures 2A–2C) and was prevented by inhibiting the electrogenic NBC with DIDS (450 μM) (0.71% ± 0.60%, n = 9, p < 0.001; Figures 2B and 2C). Furthermore, the cAMP sensor FRET ratio increased when the external solution was changed from HCO3−-free (replaced with HEPES buffered) to one containing HCO3−, which should increase sAC activity (6.51% ± 1.79%, n = 13, p < 0.001; Figure 2C). As a control for our FRET-cAMP measurement and to provide a comparison with other stimulators of cAMP synthesis, we measured the cAMP sensor FRET ratio when we increased cAMP via sAC-independent pathways by directly stimulating transmembrane adenylyl cyclases (tmACs) with forskolin (25 μM) (31.3% ± 1.8% increase in the cAMP sensor FRET ratio, n = 5; Figure 2C) or the beta-adrenergic agonist isoproterenol (100 μM) (Figure S3).